The first period in the history of
English is referred to by one of the following names: Old English, Anglo-Saxon
and Anglo-Celtic. However, the earlier two names are more popular and used more
often. The history of English begins with the coming of the Anglo-Saxons from
Europe to mainland Britain. This period is from AD 449 to AD 1066. These two
dates signify two major invasions that changed the course of history. The
Anglo-Saxons were fierce, war-like tribes from Europe and their invasion in 449
changed Celtic Britain into Germanic England. The Norman Conquest in AD 1066
resulted in the infusion of a large number of French words into the vocabulary
of English from Europe to mainland Britain.
The relationships between the Celts and
the invaders is difficult to describe accurately, but they seemed to have
settled down side by side in more or less peaceful contact with the
Anglo-Saxons and combined to produce seven kingdoms known as the Anglo-Saxon
Heptarchy. The leadership of these kingdoms gradually passed into the hands of
the Saxons because of their better political understanding. The Celtic
languages were not used for any purpose by them, neither did these languages
influence the Saxons. Therefore only a handful of Celtic words exist today and
most of them are names of places or rivers. Some of these better known are the
following.
(Place Names)
Dover, Cumberland, Kent, London, York
(Names of Rivers)
Avon, Thames, Trent, Dee, Derwent.
Some traces of Britain's Celtic past
are also preserved in the first syllable of the names of some towns and
districts in present-day England. These are- Manchester, Winchester, Worcester,
Glouscester, Lichfield, Salisbury and Exeter. Another class of Celtic words
preserved in Modern English are words connected with religion or religions
activities.
DIALECTS OF
OLD ENGLISH
There is a clear line of descent from
the speech of the Anglo-Saxons to Modern English in matters of sounds,
vocabulary, grammar and spelling, but Old English was not a single uniform
language. We can distinguish four dialects in Old English. They are Kentish,
Northumbrian, Mercian and West Saxon. Thus, it can be said that Old English was
dialectical. This is understandable because three different Anglo-Saxon tribes
were involved and it was but natural that a variety in languages existed.
SOME
CHARACTERISTICS OF OLD ENGLISH
Some features of OE make it very
difficult to read and understand the texts of this period. The language looks
different because of its alien spelling, unfamiliar vocabulary and a totally
different grammatical structure. The writing system of OE is very different
from what we find with today. When the Anglo-Saxons came to England they used a
system of writing which was in use in the Northern and Western part of Europe.
(present day Germany and Scandinavia). This writing system used the Runic
alphabet. The Runic characters were composed of sharp straight lines without
curves Many of these letters are found on weapons; such as arrows, axes,
knife-handles, swords eTC. Some are to be seen in monuments, jewellery and
caskets made of bones, but their messages are difficult to derive as most of
them are generally symbolic.
After the 6th Century, the spread of
Christianity led to the gradual use of the Roman script, as this was the
writing of the Latin religious texts. The Roman alphabet adopted by the
Anglo-Saxons passed through some variations before it reached its present shape
in Modern English. The old Saxon forms were superseded by French characters and
some new letters were added to the alphabet, such as Q, q, W, w, J, j after the
Norman Conquest of AD 1066.
FOREIGN
INFLUENCES ON OLD ENGLISH
The story of English is the story of
repeated intrusions of foreign elements into the English vocabulary. From the
earliest times the country had been subjected to successive aggressions by
foreign invaders such as the Romans, French and Scandinavians. Earlier they
brought their own languages, but later bestowed on English a fair share of
their vocabulary. In the OE period the two major influences were Latin and
Scandinavian.
LATIN
INFLUENCE ON OLD ENGLISH
Perhaps no single language has
influenced English as much as Latin. Words in Latin existed in England before
the coming of the Anglo-Saxons. In ancient times Latin had the status of a
world language. The languages of some European countries which had come under
Roman rule had become Romanised (e.g. Gaulish became French). However, this
process of Romanisation was halted by the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons, and the
collapse of the Roman Empire. Most of the borrowed words in Latin relate to the
areas in which the supremacy of the Romans was recognized, that is Military,
Agriculture and Trade and Commerce. Some examples are: wall (from Latin
Vallum), tile (from Latin Tequla), mile (from Latin Milia Passum), and many
Derivatives.
About AD 600 Christianity began to
spread in England together with the rise of literacy. The Christian
missionaries translated a large number of Latin texts (mostly in Northumbrian)
and made word glosses. Many of the following words in existence today are
borrowed from Latin and are related to religion; heaven, hell, God, gospel,
Easter, sin, alter, abbot, alms, angel, mass, nun, priest etc. Other words
relating to learning, science medicine are -history, grammatical, master, paper,
school, verse, meter, anchor, cucumber, lily, candle, plant, tiger and so on.
SCANDINAVIAN
INFLUENCE ON OLD ENGLISH
The second major linguistic invasion of
English came as a result of the Scandinavian attacks on England. They were the
Germanic inhabitants of Norway, Sweden and Denmark, who as one time neighbours
of the Anglo-Saxons in 5th Century Europe, were closely related to them in
blood and language. These daring sea-faring people were called Vikings. Viking
Age from the middle of the 8th Century to the beginning of the 11th Century.
SCANDINAVIAN
INFLUENCE ON OF VOCABULARY
The result of two centuries of close
contact with the Scandinavians had an unavoidable effect on the languages of
the Anglo-Saxons. This influence was not immediately apparent because of the
hostile relationship between the Danes and the Anglo-Saxons. Towards the end of
the 9th Century peaceful co-existence prevailed and many Danish words entering
English which were very basic in nature. These words entered through everyday
interaction some of these words are - birth, bank, bull, call, clip, die, drag,
egg, fellow, gap, give, get, guess, harbour, hit, hill, ill, kid, knife, leg,
low, meek, muck, odd, race, raise, root, rotten, scare, score, seat, sister,
sky, sly, tight, trust, want, weak, window.
Apart from this, Scandinavian
borrowings are found in family names and place names. It is interesting to
notice that Scandinavian words were not restricted to nouns, verbs and
adjectives. Structure words like prepositions and conjunctions and other forms
such as pronouns and adverbs were freely borrowed. Three OE pronouns, hie,
hiera, him were replaced by their Danish counterparts, they, their, them. Words
like both, same, aloft, seemly, to till, fro, though are all Scandinavian in
origin. But the most remarkable borrowing is ARE, the plural form of the most
basic verb in English-'to be'. Thus the Scandinavian influence on OE extended
beyond the vocabulary to touch the grammatical system as well.
OLD ENGLISH
LITERATURE
The literature of the Anglo-Saxons is
of two types. The first is that which was undoubtedly brought by the Germanic
tribes when they invaded England and is preserved in the oral tradition. The
second is manifest in the songs, poems and religious writings found in
manuscripts produced when literacy came to England. Unfortunately, only a
fragment of Old English poetry has survived and the manuscripts are the
following:-
1. The BEOWULF (MS)
2. The JUNIUS (MS)
3. The EXETER BOOK
4. The VERCELLI BOOK
The golden period of Old English
literature was the era of King Alfred. He was a scholar, soldier, law-giver and
ruler. When he became king, there were not enough scholars to read the Latin
service books and the early Christian literature. King Alfred brought in
teachers and scholars from abroad and he himself set out to translate many of
the works in Latin into West Saxon, including Bead's HISTORY. The most notable
work inspired by Alfred was The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. This book is the first
book of English prose, and the first continuous history of a European nation in
its own language
The year 1066 marks the end of Old
English. The Norman Conquest made England into little more than a colony of
France. French became the language of the king's court, justice, governance and
education. The language of everyday speech among the upper class in England was
French. The Normans had no interest in developing and patronizing a language
such as English. In the absence of adequate patronage English literary writing
almost came to a standstill. However, it continued to be the language of the
masses. Over a period of time, due to close interaction and inter-marriages,
English began replacing French, first in the homes and later in the offices and
schools. The children of the nobility spoke English as their mother tongue and
had to be taught French in school. Thus the English Language survived the
onslaught of the French rulers. Moreover, England was restored to English kings
within 150 years of the Norman Conquest.
1. Write T for true and F for false
statements:
a)
English is known also as Anglo-Celtic
English. FALSE
b)
Old English was a single uniform
language. FALSE
c) The Writing system of
Old English is very different from what we find today. TRUE
d)
Scandinavian influence on the Old
English vocabulary also affected the grammatical system. TRUE
e) The era of King
Alfred was very bad for English literature. FALSE
2. Answer
very briefly:
1. What was the impact of the
Norman Conquest on vocabulary of English?
Ans – The Norman Conquest
of 1066 introduced a large number of French words into the English vocabulary,
particularly in areas like law, governance, art, and literature. This
significantly expanded and enriched the English language, blending it with French
elements and paving the way for the development of Middle English.
2. Name the four dialects on
Old English.
Ans– The four dialects of
Old English are Kentish, Northumbrian, Mercian, and West Saxon. These dialects
developed due to the linguistic diversity brought by the different Anglo-Saxon
tribes that settled in Britain.
3. Write the features of the
Runic characters (alphabet)
Ans – The features of the
Runic characters (alphabet) are:
a) Composed
of sharp straight lines without curves
b) Found on
weapons, monuments, jewelry, and caskets made of bones
c) Messages
are difficult to derive as most are generally symbolic
d) Used in
the Northern and Western part of Europe (present-day Germany and Scandinavia)
before the 6th Century
e) Gradually
replaced by the Roman script after the spread of Christianity in the 6th
Century.
4. Name the two major
influences on the Old English.
Ans – The two major
influences on Old English were Latin and Scandinavian.
i)
Latin Influence: Latin had a significant impact on Old English, especially in terms
of vocabulary. This influence began before the Anglo-Saxons arrived in Britain,
with Latin being a dominant language in Europe due to the Roman Empire’s reach.
The introduction of Christianity around AD 600 further intensified this
influence, as many religious terms in Old English were derived from Latin.
Additionally, Latin words related to military, agriculture, trade, and learning
were incorporated into Old English.
ii)
Scandinavian Influence: The second major influence
came from the Scandinavian invasions, particularly during the Viking Age (8th
to 11th centuries). The Scandinavians, mainly the Danes, had a close linguistic
and cultural relationship with the Anglo-Saxons. Over time, their language
influenced Old English, particularly in vocabulary. Words related to daily
life, such as “egg,” “sky,” and “sister,” as well as some grammatical elements,
were borrowed from Scandinavian languages. This influence extended beyond
vocabulary, affecting the structure of the language as well.
5. Name the four manuscripts
of the Old English that have survived.
Ans:– The four
manuscripts of Old English that have survived are:
i)
The Beowulf Manuscript: This manuscript contains
the epic poem Beowulf, which is considered one of the most important works of
Old English literature.
ii)
The Junius Manuscript: This manuscript contains a
collection of Old English poems, including the Caedmon manuscript, which is one
of the earliest surviving examples of English poetry.
iii)
The Exeter Book: This manuscript contains a wide range of Old English poems,
including elegies, riddles, and wisdom poetry.
iv)
The Vercelli Book: This manuscript contains a
collection of Old English prose and poetry, including homilies, saints’ lives,
and poems like The Dream of the Rood